EXPLORING ALTRUISTIC MOTIVES OF ETHIOPIAN ADOLESCENTS:THE CASE OF COLLEGE STUDENTS
Abstract
Altruism is the quintessence of prosocial behaviour. When used in its
most restricted sense, it denotes self-sacrifice. When more broadly applied it connotes
co-operation, generosity, concern for others, and helping behaviour. Attribution of
altruistic behaviour among first year college students was examined. The Prosocial
Motivation Questionnaire (PSMQj, an instrument based on hypothetical situations
about evaluative standards operative in prosocial behaviour, was used to assess
subjects'(Ss') preference for six prosocial motives: hedonism, self-interest, conformity,
task-orientation, others-orientation, and empathy. Four hundred and one freshman
students (20 J females and 200 males) were studied. It was found out that motives of
hedonism, self-interest and conformity were rated low by all Ss. Female Ss have
shown more preference to empathy and task-orientation than male Ss. Urban }emale
Ss have endorsed more task-orientation, others-orientation and empathy than rural
and male urban Ss. Induction or explanation and preference to empathy aI"e found
correlating. Family size and socio-economic status and altruistic mq(ives are found
related. Rural origin Ss have shown preferehces to hedonistic and self-interest
motives. Ss of the humanities, arts, and medicine are found preferring more to
motives of task-orientation, confomism and hedonism.
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References
Amato, P.R. (1983).
"Helping Behavior In Urban and Rural
Environments: Field Studies Based on a Taxonomic
Organization of Helping Episodes," Journal of Personality
and Social Psychology, 45,571-586.
Baalu Girma. (1970). Keadmas Bashager, Addis Ababa, Artistic
Printing Press, (Amharic Language).
Bar-Tal, D. and Raviv, A. (1982). "A Cognitive-Learning Model of
Helping Behavior Development: Possible Implications and
Applications," in Nancy Eisenberg (Ed.). The Development
of Pro social Behavior, 199-215. New York, Academic
Press, 1986.
Batson, C. Daniel. (1990). "How Social an Animal: The Human
Capacity for Caring," American Psychologist. March, 336-
346.
Benson, P.L., Rehority, 1., Garman, L., Hanson, E., Hochschwender,
M., Lebold, C., Rohr, R., and Sullivan, 1.(1980).
"Interpersonal Cop-elates of Non-spontaneous Helping
Behavior," Journal of Social Psychology, 110,87- 95.
'.'Responsibility, · Reciprocity, and Social
Berkowitz, L.(1968).
Distance in Help Giving: An Experimental Investigation of
English Social Class Differences," Journal of Experimental
Social Psycholo~y. 4, 46-63.
Berkowitz, L.(1986). A Survey 1>f Social Psychology, 3rd ed. New
York, Holt Rinehart and Winston.
Berkowitz, L. and Daniels, L.R. (1963). ,\: "Responsibility and
Dependency," Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology,
66, 664-669, in K.Deaux and L.S. Wrightsman, Social
Psychology in the 80s, p.228. 4th ed. California, Brooks/Cole
Publishing Company, 1984,
Bilsky, W.(1991). Quoted in R.K. Silbereisen. "Developmental
Patterns and Correlates of Prosocial Motives in Adolescence,"
in L.Montada and H.W.Bierhaff (Eds.). Altruism in Social
Systems,pp. 82-104, New York, Hogrefe. and Huber
Publishers, 1991.
Block, J.H. (1973). Conceptions of Sex Role: Some Cross-Cultural
and LongituJinal Perspectives," American Psychologjst, 28,
. ' "
512-526.
Boehnke, K., Silbereisen, R.K., Eisenberg, N., Reykowski, J., and\.
Palmonari, A.(1989}. "Developmental Pattern of Prosocial ""
Motivation: A Cross-National Study," Journal of Cross-
Cultural Psychology, September, Vol., 20,3,219-243 .
Bryan, J.H, and Test, M.A. (1967). "Models and Helping: Naturalistic
Studies' in Aiding Behavior." Journal of Personaljty and
Social Psychology. 6, 400-407.
Central Statistics Authority. (1990). Ethiopia: Statistical Abstract.
Addis Ababa, Berhanena Selaro Printing Press, p.39
Coke, J.S., Batson, C.D., and McDavis, K.(1978). "Empathic
Mediation of Helping: A Two-Single Model," Journal of
Person.ality and Social Psycholo~, 36, 752-766.
Corsini, Raymond 1.(1984). Eru
Psycholo~y,
Vol. 1,
Cotter, George. (1990). Salt For Stew: Proverbs and Sayin~s of the
Oromo People with En~lish Translations, Addis Ababa,
United Printers.
Depalm, DJ. (1974). "Effects of Social Class, Moral Orientation and
Severity of Punishment of Boys' Moral Responses to
Transgression and Generosity," Deyelopmental Psychology,
10, 890-900.
Dlugokinski, E.E., and Firestone, 1.1.(1974). "Other-Centeredness
and Susceptibility to Charitable Appeals: Effects of Perceived
Discipline," Developmental Psychology. 10,21-28.
Donald, DJ., and Adelberg, K.(1967). "The Learning of Sharing
Behavior," Child Development, 38, 695-700.
Friedrich, LK., and Stein, A:H.(1973). Ag2ressive and Prosocial
Television Pro2flU1UUes and the Nature of Behavior of
Preschool Children: Monographs of the Society for Research
in Child Development, 38 (4, SeriallN 0.151) 1-64.
Gilligan, C.(1977). "In a Different Voice: Women's Conceptiohs of
Self and Morality, n Harvard Educational Review, 47, 481-
517.
in K.Boebnke et al. . Journal of Cross-Cultural
Psychol02Y, Vol. 20, No.3, September 1989,219-243.
_ _ _ . (1982). , "In . a 'Different Voice: Psychological Theory and
Women's ' . Development,"
. Cambridge, MA: Harvard
University Press, "in K.Boebnke et al. Journal of Cross-
Cultural Psychology, vol. 20; No 3,Beptember 1989, 219-243
Habtam.u Wondimu. (1993) "The Basic yalues 'ofEthiopian Workers,
Teachers and Students: A Search for Psycho-social Correlates
,
"
th
of Underdevelopment;" Paper Presented to the12
lp.temational Conference of Ethiopian Studies, Michigap., East
~ '_
Lancing, USA, September 12-15. .
Haddis Alemayehu. ' (1966).
Fikir Eskemekabir, Addis Ababa
" Berhanena
Selaro
Printing
Press, (Amharic . Language).
, Hbffmail, M.L. (1977)." Moral Internalization: Current Theory' and
Re~earch," in l~. Berkowitz (Ed:). Advances in Experimental
Social Psycholoa;y"Vol. 10,pp., 712-722 New York Academic
'Press ': '{981.-
Hoffman, M.L. (1981). "Is Altruism Part of Human Nature?": Journal
of Personality and Social Psychology, 40, 121-137.
Kamal, P., Mehta, M., and Jain, U. (1987). "Altruism in Urban and
Rural Environment," Indian Psycholoiical Review, vol., 32
(8-9), 35-42.
Knight, G.P., and Kagan, S.(1977). "Acculturation of Prosocial and
Competitive Behaviors Among Second-and Third Generation
Mexican American Children," Journal of Cross-Cultural
Psychology, 8, 273-284.
Macualey 1., and Berkowitz, L. (Eds.) (1970). Altruism and Helping
Behavior, New York, Academic Pres.
Madsen, M.e. (1971). "Developmental and Cross-Cultural
Differences in the Cooperative and Competitive Behavior of
Young Children," Journal of Cross-Cultural PsycholoiY, 2,
365-371.
Milgram, S. (1970). "The Experience of Living in Cities," Science,
167, 1, 461-468, in L. Berkowitz. (1986). A Survey of Social
Psycholo~y, 3rd ed. New York, Holt, Rinehart and W~ston.
Ministry of Education, HEMD. (1993). Placement and Statistical
Report, Addis Ababa, (Mimeographed).
Nelson, L., and Madsen, M.c.(1969). "Cooperation and· Competition
in Four-Year-Olds as a FunctIon of Reward Contingency and
Subculture," Developmental Psychology, 1,340-344.
Payne, F.D. (1980). "Children's Prosocial Conduct in Structural
Situations and as Viewed by Others: Consistency,
Convergence and Relationships with Person Variables," Child
Development, 51, 1252-1259.
Raviv, A., and Bar-Tal, D.(1981). "Demographic Correlates of
Adolescents' Helping Behavior," Journal of Youth and
Adolescence. 10,45-53.
Ribal, J.E. (1963). "Social Character and Meaning of Selfishne sand
Altruism," Sociology and Social Research, 47, 311-321.
Sawyer, J.(1966). "The Altruism Scale: A Measure of Cooperative
Individualistic and Competitive Interpersonal Orientation,"
American Journal of Sociology, 71, 407-416.
VI
IU
2SIMGe ).R. (1988) Social and Personality Development 2nd ed.
difornia, Brooks /Cole Publishing Company.
:n, R.K., Lamsfuss, S., Boehnke, K., and Eise berg,
.(1991)."Developmental Patterns and Correlation of
JOosocial Motives in Adolescence," in L.Montada and H.
" 'erner Bierhoff (Eds.). Altruism in Social Systems. pp. 82-
104. New York, Hogrefe and Huber Publishers.
Skarin, K. (1975). "Altniism and Rivalry: An Analysis of Age and
Sex Differences", Paper Presented at the Meetings of the
Society for Researc~)n Child Development, Denver, 1975, in
M.S. Smart and R::C. Smart. Children: Deyelopment and
Relationships, 3rd ed. p. 477. New York, Collier Macrrullan
International Editions, 1977.
Staub, E. (1978). "A Conception of the Determinants and
Development of Altruism and Aggression: Motives, the Self
and the Environment," in Zahn-Waxler (ed.). Altruism and .
Aggression: Biological and Social Origins, pp. 135-164. New
York, Canlbridge University Press, 1986.
.
Ugurel-Sernin, R.(1952). "Moral Behavior and Moral Judgment of
Children," Journal of AbnQtmal and Social Psychology, 47,
463-474.
Wispe, L.G., and Thompson, J.N.(1976). "The War Between the.
Words: Biological Versus Social Evolution and Some Related
Issues," $Derican Psychologist, 31, 341-384.
I )
World Bank. (1993). World Deyelopment Report, p. 239.
Yarrow, M.R., Scott, P.M., and Zahn-Waxler, C.(1973). "Learning
Concern for Others," Developmental Psychology, 8,240-260.
Zahn-Waxler, C., Cummings, E.M., and Iannoti, R. (Eds.). (1986).
Altruism and Ag~ssion: Biological and Social Origins, New
York, Cambridge University press.
"Helping Behavior In Urban and Rural
Environments: Field Studies Based on a Taxonomic
Organization of Helping Episodes," Journal of Personality
and Social Psychology, 45,571-586.
Baalu Girma. (1970). Keadmas Bashager, Addis Ababa, Artistic
Printing Press, (Amharic Language).
Bar-Tal, D. and Raviv, A. (1982). "A Cognitive-Learning Model of
Helping Behavior Development: Possible Implications and
Applications," in Nancy Eisenberg (Ed.). The Development
of Pro social Behavior, 199-215. New York, Academic
Press, 1986.
Batson, C. Daniel. (1990). "How Social an Animal: The Human
Capacity for Caring," American Psychologist. March, 336-
346.
Benson, P.L., Rehority, 1., Garman, L., Hanson, E., Hochschwender,
M., Lebold, C., Rohr, R., and Sullivan, 1.(1980).
"Interpersonal Cop-elates of Non-spontaneous Helping
Behavior," Journal of Social Psychology, 110,87- 95.
'.'Responsibility, · Reciprocity, and Social
Berkowitz, L.(1968).
Distance in Help Giving: An Experimental Investigation of
English Social Class Differences," Journal of Experimental
Social Psycholo~y. 4, 46-63.
Berkowitz, L.(1986). A Survey 1>f Social Psychology, 3rd ed. New
York, Holt Rinehart and Winston.
Berkowitz, L. and Daniels, L.R. (1963). ,\: "Responsibility and
Dependency," Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology,
66, 664-669, in K.Deaux and L.S. Wrightsman, Social
Psychology in the 80s, p.228. 4th ed. California, Brooks/Cole
Publishing Company, 1984,
Bilsky, W.(1991). Quoted in R.K. Silbereisen. "Developmental
Patterns and Correlates of Prosocial Motives in Adolescence,"
in L.Montada and H.W.Bierhaff (Eds.). Altruism in Social
Systems,pp. 82-104, New York, Hogrefe. and Huber
Publishers, 1991.
Block, J.H. (1973). Conceptions of Sex Role: Some Cross-Cultural
and LongituJinal Perspectives," American Psychologjst, 28,
. ' "
512-526.
Boehnke, K., Silbereisen, R.K., Eisenberg, N., Reykowski, J., and\.
Palmonari, A.(1989}. "Developmental Pattern of Prosocial ""
Motivation: A Cross-National Study," Journal of Cross-
Cultural Psychology, September, Vol., 20,3,219-243 .
Bryan, J.H, and Test, M.A. (1967). "Models and Helping: Naturalistic
Studies' in Aiding Behavior." Journal of Personaljty and
Social Psychology. 6, 400-407.
Central Statistics Authority. (1990). Ethiopia: Statistical Abstract.
Addis Ababa, Berhanena Selaro Printing Press, p.39
Coke, J.S., Batson, C.D., and McDavis, K.(1978). "Empathic
Mediation of Helping: A Two-Single Model," Journal of
Person.ality and Social Psycholo~, 36, 752-766.
Corsini, Raymond 1.(1984). Eru
Psycholo~y,
Vol. 1,
Cotter, George. (1990). Salt For Stew: Proverbs and Sayin~s of the
Oromo People with En~lish Translations, Addis Ababa,
United Printers.
Depalm, DJ. (1974). "Effects of Social Class, Moral Orientation and
Severity of Punishment of Boys' Moral Responses to
Transgression and Generosity," Deyelopmental Psychology,
10, 890-900.
Dlugokinski, E.E., and Firestone, 1.1.(1974). "Other-Centeredness
and Susceptibility to Charitable Appeals: Effects of Perceived
Discipline," Developmental Psychology. 10,21-28.
Donald, DJ., and Adelberg, K.(1967). "The Learning of Sharing
Behavior," Child Development, 38, 695-700.
Friedrich, LK., and Stein, A:H.(1973). Ag2ressive and Prosocial
Television Pro2flU1UUes and the Nature of Behavior of
Preschool Children: Monographs of the Society for Research
in Child Development, 38 (4, SeriallN 0.151) 1-64.
Gilligan, C.(1977). "In a Different Voice: Women's Conceptiohs of
Self and Morality, n Harvard Educational Review, 47, 481-
517.
in K.Boebnke et al. . Journal of Cross-Cultural
Psychol02Y, Vol. 20, No.3, September 1989,219-243.
_ _ _ . (1982). , "In . a 'Different Voice: Psychological Theory and
Women's ' . Development,"
. Cambridge, MA: Harvard
University Press, "in K.Boebnke et al. Journal of Cross-
Cultural Psychology, vol. 20; No 3,Beptember 1989, 219-243
Habtam.u Wondimu. (1993) "The Basic yalues 'ofEthiopian Workers,
Teachers and Students: A Search for Psycho-social Correlates
,
"
th
of Underdevelopment;" Paper Presented to the12
lp.temational Conference of Ethiopian Studies, Michigap., East
~ '_
Lancing, USA, September 12-15. .
Haddis Alemayehu. ' (1966).
Fikir Eskemekabir, Addis Ababa
" Berhanena
Selaro
Printing
Press, (Amharic . Language).
, Hbffmail, M.L. (1977)." Moral Internalization: Current Theory' and
Re~earch," in l~. Berkowitz (Ed:). Advances in Experimental
Social Psycholoa;y"Vol. 10,pp., 712-722 New York Academic
'Press ': '{981.-
Hoffman, M.L. (1981). "Is Altruism Part of Human Nature?": Journal
of Personality and Social Psychology, 40, 121-137.
Kamal, P., Mehta, M., and Jain, U. (1987). "Altruism in Urban and
Rural Environment," Indian Psycholoiical Review, vol., 32
(8-9), 35-42.
Knight, G.P., and Kagan, S.(1977). "Acculturation of Prosocial and
Competitive Behaviors Among Second-and Third Generation
Mexican American Children," Journal of Cross-Cultural
Psychology, 8, 273-284.
Macualey 1., and Berkowitz, L. (Eds.) (1970). Altruism and Helping
Behavior, New York, Academic Pres.
Madsen, M.e. (1971). "Developmental and Cross-Cultural
Differences in the Cooperative and Competitive Behavior of
Young Children," Journal of Cross-Cultural PsycholoiY, 2,
365-371.
Milgram, S. (1970). "The Experience of Living in Cities," Science,
167, 1, 461-468, in L. Berkowitz. (1986). A Survey of Social
Psycholo~y, 3rd ed. New York, Holt, Rinehart and W~ston.
Ministry of Education, HEMD. (1993). Placement and Statistical
Report, Addis Ababa, (Mimeographed).
Nelson, L., and Madsen, M.c.(1969). "Cooperation and· Competition
in Four-Year-Olds as a FunctIon of Reward Contingency and
Subculture," Developmental Psychology, 1,340-344.
Payne, F.D. (1980). "Children's Prosocial Conduct in Structural
Situations and as Viewed by Others: Consistency,
Convergence and Relationships with Person Variables," Child
Development, 51, 1252-1259.
Raviv, A., and Bar-Tal, D.(1981). "Demographic Correlates of
Adolescents' Helping Behavior," Journal of Youth and
Adolescence. 10,45-53.
Ribal, J.E. (1963). "Social Character and Meaning of Selfishne sand
Altruism," Sociology and Social Research, 47, 311-321.
Sawyer, J.(1966). "The Altruism Scale: A Measure of Cooperative
Individualistic and Competitive Interpersonal Orientation,"
American Journal of Sociology, 71, 407-416.
VI
IU
2SIMGe ).R. (1988) Social and Personality Development 2nd ed.
difornia, Brooks /Cole Publishing Company.
:n, R.K., Lamsfuss, S., Boehnke, K., and Eise berg,
.(1991)."Developmental Patterns and Correlation of
JOosocial Motives in Adolescence," in L.Montada and H.
" 'erner Bierhoff (Eds.). Altruism in Social Systems. pp. 82-
104. New York, Hogrefe and Huber Publishers.
Skarin, K. (1975). "Altniism and Rivalry: An Analysis of Age and
Sex Differences", Paper Presented at the Meetings of the
Society for Researc~)n Child Development, Denver, 1975, in
M.S. Smart and R::C. Smart. Children: Deyelopment and
Relationships, 3rd ed. p. 477. New York, Collier Macrrullan
International Editions, 1977.
Staub, E. (1978). "A Conception of the Determinants and
Development of Altruism and Aggression: Motives, the Self
and the Environment," in Zahn-Waxler (ed.). Altruism and .
Aggression: Biological and Social Origins, pp. 135-164. New
York, Canlbridge University Press, 1986.
.
Ugurel-Sernin, R.(1952). "Moral Behavior and Moral Judgment of
Children," Journal of AbnQtmal and Social Psychology, 47,
463-474.
Wispe, L.G., and Thompson, J.N.(1976). "The War Between the.
Words: Biological Versus Social Evolution and Some Related
Issues," $Derican Psychologist, 31, 341-384.
I )
World Bank. (1993). World Deyelopment Report, p. 239.
Yarrow, M.R., Scott, P.M., and Zahn-Waxler, C.(1973). "Learning
Concern for Others," Developmental Psychology, 8,240-260.
Zahn-Waxler, C., Cummings, E.M., and Iannoti, R. (Eds.). (1986).
Altruism and Ag~ssion: Biological and Social Origins, New
York, Cambridge University press.
Published
1994-06-01
Section
Articles